Abstract: Euphemism is a linguistic phenomenon, which universally exists in human society. As a very importance means, it uses language to reconcile interpersonal relationships. Its use has important social functions. This research paper analyses Euphemism’s functions in the course of social communication from five aspects, and the translation strategies for Euphemisms.

Key words: Euphemisms, social functions, translation strategies

I. Introduction As a universal phenomenon in the?course of human communication, it is a more?polite statement for unpleasant or embarrassing things by using euphemisms whose translation must be properly done by special strategies.

II. Euphemism as a very important means to reconcile interpersonal relationship

A.As a universal phenomenon in the course of linguistic use, Euphemism is a more polite statement when people talk about unpleasant or embarrassing things. It is a kind of figure of speech and even a cultural phenomenon. Euphemism is used to express those people or things unsuitable to directly speak. In terms of rhetoric, euphemism is a rhetorical technique. In terms of its form, it can be divided into the euphemisms of words and phrases. In terms of its contents, they are more rich and colorful. Euphemism is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a cultural phenomenon. Thus, learning language euphemisms are not only learning language items but also learning the cultures of English-speaking countries, especially the most influential two-British culture and American culture. The existence of taboos and unpleasant, negative, notions and things requires the existence of euphemisms to replace them. In terms of folk custom and culture, euphemism belongs to a special expression of behavioral taboo folk custom. In the course of linguistic communication, sometimes it is necessary to abstain people from saying or writing certain words or speeches. It is called speech taboo. Those forbidden or taboo words used to say or write are taboo words. However, in certain cases, those contents listed taboos have to be said in the course of speech communication and we can’t avoid using them completely, so this kind of expressive style which is mild and roundabout emerges as the times demand, which is termed as euphemism. 

B.“Euphemism” is borrowed from Greek word “euphemismos” meaning “to speak with good words” (WangZhenya:271). A euphemism then is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct or offensive (He Zhaoxiong and Mei Deming: 203-204). Euphemism is a linguistic phenomenon various languages have commonly.

C.Although it is a kind of rhetoric, its important social values and upholding psychology. Now, I’ll introduce euphemisms’ five social functions from euphemisms’ field of function.

1.The ritual function

In our daily life, we have been used to euphemisms and depend on them unconsciously. Euphemisms are used commonly so that we don’t really realize that, to a high degree, conversation is a king of ritual most people don’t realize. The ritual function of euphemisms covers up those embarrassing facts difficult to talk about and avoid awkwardness and bluntness. For example, it is very common linguistic phenomena to use euphemisms to express this physiological behaviors people avoid saying toilets directly. There are many euphemisms to toilets in English, such as “power room”， “restroom”, “convenience”, “to wash one’s hand” and so on.

2.The positive function

As linguistic building material, it has the semantic characteristics of commendatory sense and derogatory sense. When a word has unpleasant semantic characteristics, it is replaced by euphemism. Euphemism is close to the replaced words in semantic, but it doesn’t have semantic characteristics of derogatory sense or negative. So it is possible to turn negative factors into positive factors with the aid of euphemisms. For example, people avoid referring to death, family members’ death brings deep sorrow to people, but in English people often take death likened to” go to a better world”, “go to heaven”, “go to glory” and so on. These express westerners’ good wish, which makes alive people get rid of sufferings brought by family members’ death and inspires people with courage to go on live. For other examples, when we say those women who are very thin, we often use “slender”, “slim” to replace skinny women. For those women who are too fat, we often use “plump” to replace “fat”. We often use “not pretty” or “plain” to replace “ugly”. Euphemisms’ use in these places ingeniously dispels people’s inferiority, timidity and over caution and so on, which are caused by their bodies and appearance’s defects and encourage people to actively live and work with confidence. In educational circles, we should use “positive wording” to replace “negative wording”. When talking those students “below average students”, we can say, “He/She is working at his her own level”. We can’t even say they are “stupid”, “lazy”, “slow”, but say they are “under-achiever”, all of which don’t sound so harsh and don’t hurt their self-esteem. ”

3.The humorous function

The use of euphemisms can make human language full of wit and humor and jocular and even combine cruel facts with humors. This kind of usage is very more. For example, during the two bay wars, as American ally, England was very out of luck, their planes and armed cars were hit repeatedly and many soldiers died with their lofty aspirations unrealized. This “accidental injury” was called “friendly fire” and “accidental delivery of ordnance”, which make us not help laughing. We only don’t know what thoughts those English soldiers have who have gone to a better world. “Battle of the bulge” is a kind of humorous wording, which appeared after the world warⅡ. This wording comes form German troops’ last offensive at the end of 1994-“the Battle of the Bulge” which now is used to describe those wars keeping slim and fighting fat. In order to lose weight, those ladies have their wars, which are exaggerated as if they are fighting a war, and also explain their determination and stamina in order to become slim. Another example, “plastered” is used to describe drunks. As a technological word, its original meaning is planting painting plaster. Its humorous point is that it combines drunken appearance, softness and moistness with plaster painted randomly. So people can imagine drunken men’s unsteady appearance

4.The fraudulent function

Euphemism’s use often has certain fraudulent nature, it is like a beautiful and alluring garment and people don’t immediately see through things’ nature. It hides ugliness in beauty and covers the truths of facts. As to unemployment, there exist many euphemisms. Take “to fire” as an example, there are “to dismiss”, “to lay off”, “to discontinue”, “to ease off”, “to select out”, “to give the sack”, “to give the walking ticket”, and so on. “Unemployment” becomes “human recourses development”, which is, of course, an undesirable development and masks something to bad. To some extent, using “human recourses development” is for “unemployment” very likely to intend to cheat the public.

5.The satirical function

Although euphemisms are mild and indirect in semantic in which there are straightforwardness and fortitude, which makes euphemisms have certain satire. For example, in order to prettify and clear themselves, prisoners use “college” to name “prison”. They are forced to put into prison and remolded their ideology, which is embellished study for increasing knowledge in college. All of these show prisoners’ strong vanity and the word “college” becomes a satirical euphemism. Another example, “Balm of Gilead” is borrowed from Bible.

Gilead has a balm, which can make sinful souls get comfort. In English, “Balm of Gilead” means alcohol, which is quite satirical and reveals the nature of alcohol is just a kind of medicine used to anaesthetize people’s nerves. Another example, In English, as euphemism “live upon nothing” is used to describe those niggardly misers. William Makepeace Thackeray uses this euphemism “How to live on nothing a year” in the title of 36 chapter in “Vanity Fair”, which reveals the leading character’s logic of absurd life in this novel. This euphemism bitterly satirizes hypocrisies pursuing fame and wealth and selfishness being greedy for money.

III. Preserving the social functions of euphemisms in translation  Euphemisms have been used widely. Its five social functions are very useful in the course of interpersonal communication. So we must preserve its social functions in translation so as to be faithful to the original. 

A.The translation strategy for preserving the ritual function

The ritual function of euphemisms covers up those embarrassing facts difficult to talk about and avoid awkwardness and bluntness. So we should use proper language to preserve its function.

1.Using of formal words 

When some countries’ leaders die, other countries’ leaders make a speech with the formal word “go to the way of all flesh”（归天，归土，魂归自然）, which sounds more formal and polite and is even good for friendly intercourse among countries. Another example, “I’m not Yuanyang” protested concubine Zhao, “She’s long since gone to the immortal’s realm”. （我不是鸳鸯，我是阎王老爷差人拿我去的。）(Cao Xueqin The Story of Stone)

“Go to the immortal’s realm”（仙逝） is a formal word to the person who is of whole character and high prestige. Here its semantic is equal and emotion is identical.

2.Using of similar word if suitable for the situation

It is a very common linguistic phenomenon to use euphemisms to express this psychological behaviors people avoids referring to. As people avoid saying toilets directly, there are so many euphemisms of toilets which are used in different occasions in English, such as: to go to the restroom（去休息间）、to go to the washroom（去洗手间）、to use the bathroom（使用浴室）、to do one’s needs（做要做的事）、to wash one’s hands（洗手）natural necessary（需要、便利）、to go somewhere（到什么地方去一下）、to answer the call of nature（响应大自然的号召）、to ease oneself (自我轻松一下）、to get some fresh air（去呼吸一点新鲜空气）and so on.There are also some expressions used by ladies to express toilets, such as：“Can I add some powder? （我可以茶点粉吗?）”还可以使用to freshen up（ 梳洗打扮）、to fix one’s face（修饰面部）、to powder one’s nose（给鼻子搽粉）and so on. Although their forms are different, they produce the same effects.

3.Using of different words for preserving the connotation In daily exchange of conventional greetings, English and American do their best to reach “elegance” and avoid directly mentioning vulgar things so as not to appear “rude”. For example, in western public places, it is not difficult for us to find “Thank you for not smoking here”（谢谢你未在此吸烟！）， such as these roundabout notices compared with these notices such as “No smoking, those people breaking this rule will be fined X Yuan.” （禁止吸烟，否则罚款x元）This use of euphemism is a show of respect to people in general. This kind of explanation and advice full of constructive and tolerant tone makes people willingly accept this regulation “Please don’t smoke here” more effectively.

B.The translation strategy for preserving the positive function.

The positive functions of euphemisms can be expressed with different forms in translation. No matter what forms, they can make people feed comfortable and happy.

1. By positive wording in target language if suitable.

Chinese people don’t avoid referring to saying “old”, but there is no wording “old people” in English-speaking countries. Because “old people” means that they are no longer useful and will be replaced by more capable and younger people. This wording, “old people”, is replaced by “elderly people”（老年人） or a more euphemistic term “senior citizens”(资深公民); And there are other euphemisms for “old”, such as  “second childhood”（第二青春）, the longer living(年长者) ，“golden years”（黄金时代），“well-preserved”（保养得很好的人）, “experienced”（有经验的人）etc.

 “an old maid”（老处女） is said to be “single” （单身）or “unmarried”（未婚女士）， they go in and out “evergreen house” and receive “retirement pension”（退休金）, not “old age pension”（养老金）. 

2. By negative wording in target language if proper Some euphemisms in English are formed by means of negation. For example, we use “she is not pretty” （她并不漂亮）to replace “she is ugly”（她是丑陋的）, “unwise” （不聪明的）for “stupid”（笨的） “impolite”（不礼貌的） for “rude”（粗鲁的）, “untruthful” （不真实的）for “false”（虚假的）. And we also often use these expressions such as “I don’t think……”, “I’m not sure……” and so on to negate some sentences. Some examples: I don’t think it is well done. (I think it is not well done). I don’t think it will work. (I think it will not work). I’m not sure if it is correct. (It may probably be wrong). All of these are negative wording but they sound more pleasant.

3. By different wording in target language as a substitute

In many cases, people don’t directly say “die”, they use so many different expressions to show the same meanings, such as “be in heaven”（上西天）, “depart this life”（离开人间，去世，逝世）, “be pushing up the daisies”（命丧黄泉）, “give up the ghost”（死，断气）, “kick the bucket”（死了，一命呜呼）, “turn up one’s toes” （死）and so on. All of these can make people avoid sadness and missing their family members having died.

C.The translation strategy for preserving the humorous function

The humorous function of euphemisms can make language vivid, charming wit and humor and implicit. Its translation also has different styles.

1.With similar wording if it happens to be in accordance to the original

This is a conversation between old Henny and his wife Phoebe. They were as fond of each other as it is possible for two old people to be who have nothing else in this life to be fond of. 

“Now, Henny, do lie still! You’re as restless as a chicken”

“Well, I can’t sleep, Phoebe” 

“Well，you needn’t roll so, anyhow, you kin let me sleep”.

(From the lost Phoebe , by Theodore Preiser)

Here Phoebe didn’t directly ask Henny to sleep quietly, but she asked him to lie liking a chicken with humor. Henny not only didn’t become angry but also felt very happy. It also showed that their feelings were very good. 

2.With different wording in order to keep the original function

Now, let’s see an example.

When the two men in front seat of the “ambulance” stepped out and walked into the house, one of the boys, a wiry, sallow-faced, blond lad, jerked his thumb and murmured softly to the others: “ Oh, mamma, aren’t they got the job” 

(From Sunday Morning on Twentieth Street, by Albert Maltz).

This article mainly told us a gas poisoning in a building on Twentieth Street. The author just took ambulance, as a vehicle, which was only to carry those, died people humorously. Perhaps all of people saw the ambulance, they feel funny. Although the ambulance was very busy, they don’t save one person.

3.With special wording in case of pun

Perhaps we are familiar with the word “Normandy”. The word “Normandy disembark”（诺曼底登陆） happened in The World War Ⅱ and finally they succeeded. Now it is used in a song “Love Normandy”(爱情诺曼底) humorously,which shows the determination and stamina and sounds very vivid and interesting. Now, let’s see another example. It is from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar

“A trade, sir, that, I hope, I may use with a safe conscience, which is, indeed, sir, a mender of bad soles” When shoe menders talked their jobs, they all said this arrogantly. Shakespeare used homonymy “soles” and “souls” to form pun and express shoe menders’ wit.

D.The translation strategy for preserving the fraudulent function.

The fraudulent function of Euphemisms can makes the truths of facts and hides ugliness in beauty. So its translation should preserve the linguistic color.

1.Using similar wording to preserve the linguistic color. Government officials also frequently euphemisms in order to mask or disguise truths. For example, “Industrial dispute”（工业上的争端） may be used to replace “strike”（罢工）. President Ronal Reagan, who had promised the Americans to cut taxes, called for “revenue enhancement”（税收加强） instead of “tax increased”（增加税收）, when he was confronted with the realties of national finances (Wang Zhenya: 271). In 1983, the United States sent its armed forces into Grenada. President Reagan called it “a rescue mission” （救援队）and showed his irritation with reporters at their frequent use of the word “invasion” （侵犯）(271). The helicopter raid to rescue American captives in Iran in 1980 failed and it was called “an incomplete success”（一次不圆满的胜利） rather than a failure （一次失败）(271). Most surprise attacks against an enemy have now become “per-emptive strikes” (先发制人的攻击)or “active defense”（积极防御）. The word “over-flight”（越界飞行） as a euphemism for “spying”（间谍活动） came into being in 1960s, when an U.S. spy plane U-2 intruded into the Soviet Union’s territorial sky for detection. It caused great intense between the two countries. Afterwards the Wilson Government only called it “over-flight” in order to escape from condemns (Wang Yinquan: 64).

2.Using different wording to preserve the linguistic color if necessary 

Poor does not sound good to many people, some scholars think that poor is a taboo topic and put the euphemisms relating to poor into the category of traditional euphemisms. Now the word “poor” has to struggle for its survival, for many euphemistic words and expressions are going to replace it, at least in the formal official documents and in writing. These words and expressions include “needy”（拮据）, “underprivileged”（经济状况低下的）, “disadvantaged”（处于不利地位的） and so on. “A slum” (平民窟)is called as “a substandard housing” (低标准住房). And a poor country such as North Korea may be called “a backward country”（滞后国家）, “a underdeveloped country”（欠发达国家）, or even better names like “a developing country” （发展中国家）and “an emerging country”（新兴国家）.

3.Using special wording to preserve the linguistic color as a substitute means

United Stated Government created a lot of euphemisms during the Vietnam War period. “Bombing” （轰炸）becomes “Give massive air support”（给予大规模的空中支援）or pacification of the enemy infrastructure(瓦解敌人的永久性防御设施).“War”(战争)becomes “Conflict”（冲突）. “Aggression”（侵略）becomes “Police action”（镇压行动）. “Retreat”（撤退） is euphemized as “Phased withdrawal” （分阶段撤退）or “Readjustment of the front”（重新调整前线）. The most typical example is that the U.S. Government changed the“War Department”（战争部门）to“Defense Department”（国防部）after World War II. Some euphemisms were created during The Watergate Incidence, such as：“wiretapping or bugging”(偷听电话或窃听) is called “electronic surveillance”(电子监督)；“fabricate”(捏造) is called “ be less than truthful”（不太真实）；“flatly refuse to cooperate” （完全拒绝合作）is called “stone wall ”（凉若石壁）；Especially Diplomatic personnel often use some euphemized expressions，such as“a useful and businesslike meeting”（一次有用而又高效的会议），which is actually a meeting that nothing is settled and no agreement is reached.And“a serious and candid discussion”（一次严肃而又坦诚的讨论）which may mean that there exists a serious controversy between the two sides. 

E.The translation strategy for preserving the satirical function Although euphemisms are mild and roundabout, they have certain satire. So their translation should also preserve the linguistic color.

1.Using similar wording to preserve the linguistic color

Here is an example from Cao Xueqin The story of stone

While he was young, his parents had found him a wife who was now just about twenty, and whose good looks were the admiration of all. But she was a flighty creature who loved nothing better than to have affairs.

Here “have affairs”（婚外情） satirizes his frivolous and unconventional behaviors. Another example, “steals”(偷窃) can also be said to be “take over others’ things without permission”（未经许可拿走了别人的东西）. “lies”（说谎） can also be called as “has a tendency to stretch the truth”（有夸大事实的倾向）， and “cheats” （课堂上考试作弊）can be referred to as “depends on others to do his/her work”（靠别人做作业）. 

2.Using different wording to preserve the linguistic color if necessary

In Chinese, prostitution is illegal in law, but it is a dark side of British and American societies, which is legal in their laws. The “girls” can even advertise through media. In order to avoid embarrassment, a lot of euphemisms are created satirically for prostitute and prostitution. Such as “the girl”（女郎）, “street walker”（街头行人）, “woman in the street”（街头女郎）, “working girl”（上班女郎）, “businesswoman”（女商人） and so on. All of these are used as euphemistic terms for a “prostitute”. And “the trade”（交易）, “the old trade”（古老的交易）, “the business”（生意） and “the oldest profession” （最古老的行业）are for “prostitution”.

3.Using special wording to preserve the linguistic color as a substitute means For example, when someone is sent to prison, people may say “He is sent up the river”（他被送到哈德逊河的上游了）. Here the river refers to the Hudson River, which flows through the city of New York. Sing Sing State prison, the most well known prison in the U.S. is located at the upper reach of the river. Prisoners also name “prison”（监狱） as “college”（大学）, which satirizes their great vanity.

III. Conclusion

Euphemism is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a cultural phenomenon. It is an important means to reconcile interpersonal relationships with language and can avoid hurting others because of direct statements. Its social characteristics explain that people’s speech forms of expression are frequently restricted by social factors. With the social transform from physical strength to intelligence, speaking skills and good interpersonal relationships influence people’s life more and more profoundly. Modern people do their best to avoid directness, but tend to use indirect and roundabout words. In this research paper, I introduce euphemism’s five social functions and its translation strategy. I also give many examples, which help understand euphemism’s functions. However, an excessive use of euphemisms may have negative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms are wordy or give writing a timid quality. So we must always be on guard not to use some necessary euphemisms in our communication with English-speaking people as well as to avoid breaking taboos and being impolite or rude. That is the right attitude we should hold towards English euphemisms and we should really ask euphemisms to serve people effectively.

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